©Danny Green
Red, Roe & Fallow Deer
We have several species of deer in the UK, some are native, some naturalised and others are invasive non-native species. Deer are often cited as having negative effects on woodland habitats whereas the reality is more nuanced. A mixed guild of deer is an important part of our ecosystems. The problems occur when numbers are out of balance leading to browsing pressures that are too high to allow woody vegetation to establish or when non-native species of deer have been introduced that have not co-evolved with our native plant species and can therefore have damaging effects. Deer though, when in balance have many important ecosystem functions and these functions vary between species, each occupying a slightly different ecological niche. Deer therefore, are not all the same and each can have a role to play.
© Lauren Hulbert
Red Deer
Red deer are Britain’s largest remaining native wild herbivore. Once widespread across the country, their numbers declined dramatically by the 18th century due to hunting and habitat loss. While introductions from Europe have helped populations recover, numbers remain highly variable, with both local overpopulation and regional extinctions occurring. Red deer are predominantly grazers and exhibit selective foraging behaviour that shapes vegetation, creating a mosaic landscape that supports a wide range of species.
©Bertie Gregory
Environmental Benefits
Increasing Soil Health / Carbon Sequestration
Trampling organic growth and the spread of droppings contributes to nutrient redistribution in both woodlands and grasslands, enriching soil health. This process also helps improve carbon sequestration and promotes plant growth.
Roe deer aid ecosystem processes like nutrient cycling. This is aided through trampling organic matter into the ground, promoting healthy plant growth and carbon storage.
Grazers & Browsers
Red deer are predominantly grazers but will browse on small shrubs and palatable browse species, according to their nutritional needs. They are highly adaptable and thrive in a variety of habitats, including woodlands, scrub, heathlands, and wetlands.
Fallow deer are categorised as intermediary feeders, helping maintain open meadows and prevents woodlands from becoming overly dense, benefiting plant diversity and habitat structure. This also suppresses dominant vegetation, creating a mosaic of open areas of woodland.
Roe deer are predominantly browsers, often targeting young trees and shrubs, which leads to dynamic shifts in forest species communities. This feeding behaviour also prevents the domination of a single plant and creates open areas where light can reach the understorey vegetation.
Tree Disturbance
Red deer frequently strip bark and rub their antlers against trees, creating deadwood habitats to support fungi, invertebrates and cavity-nesting birds. They can also browse on leafy vegetation from species like elder which contain cyanide – vegetation that other herbivores avoid.
Vegetation Diversity
Open patches of woodland act as microhabitats that benefit other fauna such as butterflies, reptiles and small mammals, and increased diversity of vegetation provides habitats for birds, other invertebrates and fungi.
Seed Dispersal
They are highly effective seed dispersers, transporting over 130 plant species via their dung, hooves and coat, contributing to plant diversity and habitat regeneration across the landscape.
They are highly effective seed dispersers, transporting species of plant in their fur and droppings, contributing to plant diversity and the regeneration of degraded landscapes.
Rutting Behaviours
Rutting behaviour, which occurs in Autumn, involves clashing antlers, tearing up soil and rubbing against trees. The disturbance caused by the rut promotes new growth and creates microhabitats for insects and small mammals.
Wallowing
Red deer often seek wetland areas to wallow throughout the year, creating pockets of ephemeral, wet, muddy water bodies that provide habitat for a wide range of species.
Wetland Foraging
Red deer commonly frequent wetland environments, foraging on aquatic vegetation, which helps control dominant plants such as rushes and reeds, creating space for a wider variety of aquatic species.
© Lauren Hulbert
Fallow Deer
Fallow deer are considered a naturalised species in Britain. Although there is no evidence of their occurrence in the Holocene, they were thought to have been introduced around 2,000 years ago. However, numerous records show their presence in Britain during earlier interglacials. Over the past few centuries their populations have fluctuated due to hunting pressures and habitat change, but they are now abundant across much of Britain, particularly across the south. They both graze and browse, and are found in a wide range of habitats, including woodlands, grasslands, and scrub mosaics.
©Rachel Bigsby
Managing Deer for Nature Recovery
Key management considerations include:
Population Management
Ensure appropriate social structures for each species is observed and maintain appropriate densities based on the carrying capacity of the area.
Public Safety / Ecotourism
Deers rut in the autumn, and during this period their behaviour can be unpredictable. People should keep a safe distance and ensure dogs are under control. However, the rut is a spectacular sight and can offer valuable ecotourism opportunities when observed responsibly from a safe distance.
Carcass Management
Wild deer are exempt from the ‘Fallen Stock Rule’, unless a disease is suspected, so their carcass can remain in situ to benefit other wildlife and return nutrients to the soil.
Fencing
While allowing wild red deer to move in and out of nature recovery projects is optimal for achieving maximum ecological benefits, some sites have chosen to keep red deer within the boundary by erecting deer-height fencing. Fenced-in deer are usually still considered legally wild, depending on the size of the site.
Dedicated Staffing
If numbers are already high, or once new populations become established, fallow deer will require management. This should be done through a dedicated, landscape-scale approach to maintaining healthy population levels. An experienced stalker can regulate numbers in ways that mimic the effects of natural predators and density-dependent pressures, such as starvation, pests, parasites, and disease. This approach also provides a supply of healthy, locally sourced, ethical venison.
Sika Deer Caution
Sika deer, a species closely related to red deer, are found in parts of Britain. The two species can hybridise; therefore, care should be taken to ensure that red deer released for rewilding purposes aren’t sika deer hybrids and that there isn’t a nearby Sika deer population that they may hybridise with.
Legal Restrictions
The introduction of deer in Britain must comply with specific legal and regulatory requirements:
Wild Release Licence
Wild deer are a resident native species which does not require a licence from Natural England for release into the wild.
No Identification
Wild deer are not subject to identification requirements such as ear tagging or tattooing.
Protected By Law
Wild deer are protected under the Deer Act 1991 from being taken, killed or injured in certain circumstances, as well as from particular capture methods.
© Lauren Hulbert
Roe Deer
Roe deer are widespread across Europe, both the numbers and range of roe deer in Britain fell dramatically between the 17th and early 20th century due to excessive hunting. Introductions from Europe helped recover the species, and it has since seen an increase in its number and spread across Britain. Their ecological flexibility, ability to survive in a variety of habitats and undoubted nativeness make them a likely herbivore species to be present in nature recovery initiatives.
©Jon hawkins
Large Herbivore Profile: Fallow Deer
Fallow deer are considered a naturalised species in Britain. Although there is no evidence of their occurrence in the Holocene, they were thought to have been introduced around 2,000 years ago.
Large Herbivore Profile: Red Deer
Red deer are Britain’s largest remaining native wild herbivore. Once widespread across the country, their numbers declined dramatically by the 18th century due to hunting and habitat loss.
Large Herbivore Profile: Roe Deer
Roe deer are widespread across Europe, both the numbers and range of roe deer in Britain fell dramatically between the 17th and early 20th century due to excessive hunting. Introductions from Europe helped recover the species,
A note on
Diverse Herbivore Assemblages
Each herbivore has unique physical and behavioural traits that shape the environment in different ways and create habitats for a variety of species. Their combined impact supports a broader range of species and rewilding projects should therefore aim to introduce a variety of herbivore species where possible. Please refer to our other herbivore guides for more information.
The Large Herbivore Working Group (LHWG) is a UK-based network of experts formed in 2022 to support the restoration and introduction of large herbivores as part of nature-recovery efforts. It develops guidance, informs policy, and shares best practice across the sector. The LHWG is currently funded until 2027 and hosted by the Landscape Recovery team at The Wildlife Trusts.
Please note these species and nature recovery profiles produced by the LHWG are not legal advice and are intended to provide a high-level overview to support your understanding of considerations needed for large herbivore introductions and management for nature recovery initiatives in England.
